Russian Federalism: The Constitutional Structure of the Federation
The Russian Federation is the largest country in the world by territory, and its federal structure reflects the immense diversity of its constituent parts. The federal arrangement established by the 1993 Constitution has undergone significant transformation over three decades, shifting from a highly asymmetrical federation with strong regional autonomy to a centralized system dominated by the federal executive. The federal structure remains a defining feature of Russian constitutional law, though its character has been fundamentally altered by centralizing reforms.
Constitutional Foundations
Article 1 of the Constitution declares Russia a federal state, and Article 5 establishes the fundamental principles of federalism: the integrity of the state, the unity of the system of state power, the division of jurisdiction between federal and regional authorities, and the equality of all federal subjects. The Constitution recognizes the right of peoples to self-determination within the framework of the federal state. These principles reflect the compromise between the need for territorial unity and the recognition of ethnic and regional diversity inherited from the Soviet federal system.
The Constitution establishes the supremacy of federal law throughout the territory of the Russian Federation. Article 4 affirms the sovereignty of the Russian Federation over its entire territory, and Article 15 provides that the Constitution and federal laws have supreme legal force. These provisions preclude any claim of sovereignty by constituent units of the federation, a distinction from genuinely sovereign federal systems.
Types of Federal Subjects
Russia comprises 89 federal subjects of six distinct types. Republics (22) are national-territorial formations that may have their own constitutions, official languages in addition to Russian, and a higher degree of cultural and linguistic autonomy. Most republics were established as homelands for specific ethnic groups, including Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Chechnya, and Sakha (Yakutia).
Krais (9) and oblasts (48) are territorial-administrative units that form the majority of federal subjects. Unlike republics, they do not have their own constitutions but operate under charters (ustavy). Cities of federal importance (3) — Moscow, Saint Petersburg, and Sevastopol — have special status as city-regions combining municipal and regional functions. The Jewish Autonomous Oblast (1) is a territorial unit with special ethnic status. Autonomous okrugs (4) are national-territorial formations within oblasts that maintain separate representation in the Federation Council.
Division of Powers
The Constitution establishes three categories of jurisdiction. Article 71 enumerates subjects of exclusive federal jurisdiction, including defense, foreign policy, monetary and credit regulation, the federal budget, energy systems, transportation, and the judicial system. Article 72 lists subjects of joint jurisdiction, including human rights protection, education, healthcare, environmental protection, and coordination of international and foreign economic relations. Article 73 provides that all matters not assigned to federal or joint jurisdiction remain within the exclusive competence of the federal subjects.
In practice, the constitutional division of powers has been progressively tilted in favor of the federal center. Federal legislation on joint jurisdiction matters often preempts regional authority, and the federal government has used its powers to impose uniform standards across the federation. The Constitutional Court has generally upheld broad federal authority, particularly in cases involving national security, economic regulation, and the protection of fundamental rights.
Treaties of Delegation
During the 1990s, the federal government entered into bilateral treaties with individual federal subjects, particularly republics, granting them additional powers beyond those provided by the Constitution. The Treaty with Tatarstan (1994) was the most significant, granting the republic broad economic and administrative autonomy. These treaties of delegation (dogovory o razgranichenii polnomochiy) reflected the weakness of the federal government during the Yeltsin era and the need to accommodate regional pressures.
President Putin’s centralization campaign reversed this trend. A 1999 federal law required all treaties to be brought into conformity with federal legislation and limited their scope. By the early 2000s, most treaties had been terminated or allowed to lapse. The 2003 Law on the General Principles of Organization of Legislative and Executive Bodies of State Power of Federal Subjects further standardized regional governance and eliminated the contractual basis of Russian federalism.
The Asymmetrical Character of Russian Federalism
Russian federalism has always been asymmetrical, with different types of subjects possessing different legal status. Republics enjoyed constitutional privileges including their own constitutions, official languages, and citizenship provisions. The 2020 constitutional amendments further reduced this asymmetry by subordinating all federal subjects to a unified system of public authority and eliminating many of the distinctive features of republican status.
The practical manifestation of asymmetry has been fiscal rather than constitutional. Federal subjects vary dramatically in their economic capacity, with a handful of regions (Moscow, Tyumen Oblast, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug) generating a disproportionate share of tax revenues. The federal budget system redistributes resources from wealthy to poorer regions through inter-budgetary transfers, creating a system of fiscal dependence that reinforces federal control.
Federal Districts and the Power Vertical
In 2000, President Putin created seven federal districts (since expanded to eight) headed by presidential plenipotentiary representatives (polpredy). The federal districts were not created by constitutional amendment but by presidential decree, and they represent an administrative overlay on the constitutional federal structure. The polpredy coordinate federal executive bodies in the regions, supervise the implementation of federal policy, and monitor compliance with federal law.
The creation of federal districts was a central component of the power vertical (vertikal vlasti) — the hierarchical subordination of all levels of government to the federal executive. This system has effectively transformed Russia from a constitutionally federal state into a unitary state operating through regional administrative units. The power vertical encompasses the appointment and dismissal of regional governors, coordination of law enforcement, and oversight of regional compliance with federal policy.
Regional Governance and the Reform of Gubernatorial Elections
Originally, regional governors were popularly elected. In 2004, following the Beslan school siege, President Putin introduced legislation replacing direct gubernatorial elections with a system of presidential nomination and regional legislative confirmation. Governors became effectively appointed by and removable at the pleasure of the President. Although direct elections were formally restored in 2012, the reform included a municipal filter requiring candidates to collect signatures from local deputies and opened the possibility of removing governors.
The system of municipal filters and other restrictive requirements has ensured that only candidates acceptable to the federal executive can effectively compete. The President retains the power to dismiss governors for poor performance, corruption, or loss of confidence. This system has eliminated the independence of regional executives and integrated them into the federal administrative hierarchy.
Constitutional Reforms of 2020
The 2020 constitutional amendments further centralized the federal structure. The amendments introduced the concept of a unified system of public authority (edinnaya sistema publichnoy vlasti), placing regional and local government within a single hierarchical structure headed by the President. The amendments also strengthened the President’s powers over regional authorities and codified long-standing centralizing practices in the constitutional text.
The amendments provided for the inclusion of regional authorities in the unified system, subjecting them to federal coordination and oversight. The State Council was given constitutional status as a body coordinating federal and regional authorities. These changes formalized the centralizing trends of the previous two decades and eliminated any remaining ambiguity about the subordinate position of regional government within the Russian constitutional order.
Significance
Russian federalism has evolved from a contractual, asymmetrical arrangement with substantial regional autonomy to a centralized, hierarchical system of regional administration within a unitary state. The federal structure established by the 1993 Constitution has been progressively transformed through presidential decrees, federal legislation, and constitutional amendments. The formal federal structure remains in the constitutional text, but the substance of federalism — genuine autonomy, shared governance, and vertical checks and balances — has been substantially eroded. The Russian Federation now operates as a unitary state with regional administrative subdivisions, while maintaining the constitutional form of a federal system.