Global
All articles tagged with jurisdiction: global
Aboriginal Title in Canada
Overview Aboriginal Title in Canada is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Academic Freedom and Tenure
Overview Academic Freedom and Tenure is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Accessible Communication and ICT
Overview Accessible Communication and ICT is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Actus Reus
Definition Actus reus (Latin: “guilty act”) is the physical element of a crime. It refers to the external conduct, omission, or state of affairs that the law prohibits. Together with mens …
ADA Employment (Title I)
Overview ADA Employment (Title I) is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
ADA Public Accommodations (Title III)
Overview ADA Public Accommodations (Title III) is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
ADA Public Services (Title II)
Overview ADA Public Services (Title II) is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Administrative Law
Definition Administrative law is the body of law that governs the organization, powers, and procedures of administrative agencies, as well as the legal relationships between these agencies and the …
Agency Law and Authority
Overview Agency Law and Authority is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Agricultural Labor Law
Overview Agricultural Labor Law is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Agricultural Land Use and Zoning
Overview Agricultural Land Use and Zoning is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
AI and Automated Decision-Making
Overview AI and Automated Decision-Making is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Americans with Disabilities Act
Overview Americans with Disabilities Act is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Animal Agriculture Law
Overview Animal Agriculture Law is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Anonymization and De-identification
Overview Anonymization and De-identification is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Arbitration Law and Practice
Overview Arbitration Law and Practice is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Aristotle
Introduction Aristotle (384–322 BCE) transformed legal philosophy by grounding it in empirical observation and systematic classification. His Nicomachean Ethics and Politics provide the first …
Bail and Pretrial Release
Summary The legal framework governing pretrial release, bail determinations, and the right to reasonable bail conditions. Overview Bail is the mechanism by which an accused person is released from …
Bailment and Warehousing
Overview Bailment and Warehousing is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Bioethics and the Law
Overview Bioethics and the Law is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Biometric Privacy Laws
Overview Biometric Privacy Laws is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Blasphemy and Religious Hate Speech
Overview Blasphemy and Religious Hate Speech is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Bona Fide
Definition Bona fide (Latin: “in good faith”) describes conduct that is honest, sincere, and without fraud or deception. It is a fundamental principle across multiple areas of law, …
Bulk Sales and Asset Acquisitions
Overview Bulk Sales and Asset Acquisitions is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Burden of Proof
Definition The burden of proof is the obligation of a party in legal proceedings to prove the facts necessary to establish their claim or defense. It determines which party bears the risk of …
Campaign Finance Law
Overview Campaign Finance Law is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Campus Free Speech
Overview Campus Free Speech is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal framework …
Canon Law
Definition Canon law (from Greek kanon—a rule or measuring rod) is the legal system of the Catholic Church, governing its internal organization, sacramental life, and the rights and obligations of its …
Canon Law and Church Governance
Overview Canon Law and Church Governance is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Captive Insurance and Alternative Risk Transfer
Overview Captive Insurance and Alternative Risk Transfer is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to …
Caselaw Access Project (Harvard Law School)
The complete digitized collection of US case law, containing over 6.4 million cases spanning 1658 to 2018. The Caselaw Access Project (CAP) was a landmark digitization initiative by Harvard Law …
Caveat Emptor
Definition Caveat emptor (Latin: “let the buyer beware”) is a common law doctrine providing that the buyer of goods purchases them at their own risk regarding quality and condition, unless …
CCPA and State Privacy Laws
Overview CCPA and State Privacy Laws is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Certiorari
Definition Certiorari (Latin: “to be informed of” or “to be made certain in regard to”) is a writ or discretionary process by which a higher court reviews the decision of a …
Charter of the United Nations
Introduction The Charter of the United Nations is the founding treaty of the United Nations, signed in San Francisco on 26 June 1945 and entering into force on 24 October 1945. It is the principal …
Child Custody and Visitation
Overview Child Custody and Visitation is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Child Welfare and Protective Services
Overview Child Welfare and Protective Services is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Children's Constitutional Rights
Overview Children’s Constitutional Rights is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Children's Online Privacy (COPPA)
Overview Children’s Online Privacy (COPPA) is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Codification Movement
Definition The codification movement was a nineteenth-century intellectual and political movement to organize and rationalize law into comprehensive, authoritative written codes. It transformed legal …
Commercial Paper and Negotiable Instruments
Overview Commercial Paper and Negotiable Instruments is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this …
Commercial Space Regulation
Overview Commercial Space Regulation is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Commodity Trading and Futures
Overview Commodity Trading and Futures is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Common Law Evolution
Definition The common law is the legal system that originated in England after the Norman Conquest (1066) and developed through judicial decisions rather than legislative codes. It is characterized by …
Conscience and Religious Exemptions
Overview Conscience and Religious Exemptions is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Constitutional Law
Definition Constitutional law is the body of law that governs the interpretation, implementation, and amendment of a constitution. It establishes the fundamental principles by which a state is …
Consumer Arbitration Agreements
Overview Consumer Arbitration Agreements is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Consumer Credit Protection
Overview Consumer Credit Protection is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Consumer Leasing Act
Overview Consumer Leasing Act is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Consumer Product Safety
Overview Consumer Product Safety is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Consumer Protection Law Overview
Summary The legal framework protecting consumers from unfair, deceptive, and fraudulent business practices. Overview Consumer protection law encompasses statutes, regulations, and common law doctrines …
Consumer Warranties and Magnuson-Moss
Overview Consumer Warranties and Magnuson-Moss is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Contract
Definition A contract is a legally binding agreement between two or more parties that creates mutual obligations enforceable by law. Contract law governs the formation, performance, enforcement, and …
Cornell Legal Information Institute (LII)
The oldest and most comprehensive open access publisher of US legal materials, including the US Code and Wex encyclopedia. The Legal Information Institute (LII) at Cornell Law School pioneered free …
Court-Annexed ADR Programs
Overview Court-Annexed ADR Programs is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
CourtListener and the Free Law Project
A comprehensive open platform providing US case law, oral arguments, PACER data, and judicial biographies. The CourtListener platform is the flagship project of the Free Law Project, a nonprofit …
Criminal Law Basics
Definition Criminal law is the system of laws that defines conduct prohibited by the state because it threatens public safety, welfare, or order, and prescribes punishment for such conduct. Unlike …
Crop Insurance and Disaster Assistance
Overview Crop Insurance and Disaster Assistance is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Cyber Insurance
Overview Cyber Insurance is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal framework …
Data Breach Notification Laws
Overview Data Breach Notification Laws is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Data Protection Enforcement
Overview Data Protection Enforcement is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
De Novo
Definition De novo (Latin: “from the beginning” or “anew”) describes a standard of review in which an appellate court considers a matter as if for the first time, giving no …
Debt Collection Regulation
Overview Debt Collection Regulation is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Diplomatic Immunity
Introduction Diplomatic immunity is a principle of international law that grants diplomats and their premises immunity from the jurisdiction of the receiving state. Codified in the Vienna Convention …
Disability Benefits and Entitlements
Overview Disability Benefits and Entitlements is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Dispute Resolution Boards
Overview Dispute Resolution Boards is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Double Jeopardy
Summary The constitutional protection against being tried twice for the same offense after acquittal or conviction. Overview The double jeopardy clause of the Fifth Amendment provides that no person …
Due Process
Definition Due process is the constitutional principle requiring that legal proceedings be conducted fairly, according to established rules and principles, and with respect for the rights of all …
Duty of Good Faith and Fair Dealing
Overview Duty of Good Faith and Fair Dealing is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Early Neutral Evaluation
Overview Early Neutral Evaluation is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Education Finance and Equity
Overview Education Finance and Equity is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Education for English Learners
Overview Education for English Learners is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Election Administration and Integrity
Overview Election Administration and Integrity is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Electronic Commerce Regulation
Overview Electronic Commerce Regulation is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Employee Privacy and Monitoring
Overview Employee Privacy and Monitoring is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Equal Pay and Compensation Equity
Overview Equal Pay and Compensation Equity is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Equity
Definition Equity is a body of legal principles that supplement, correct, and mitigate the rigid application of common law. Derived from the Latin aequitas (fairness, justice), equity operates when …
Establishment Clause
Overview Establishment Clause is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Estate Planning and Tax Considerations
Overview Estate Planning and Tax Considerations is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
EUR-Lex (EU Legal Database)
The official portal for European Union legal documents, including treaties, legislation, case law, and parliamentary materials. EUR-Lex is the official online repository of European Union law, …
Eviction Law and Procedure
Overview Eviction Law and Procedure is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Ex Post Facto
Definition Ex post facto (Latin: “after the fact”) refers to laws that retroactively criminalize conduct that was legal when performed, increase punishment for past offenses, or alter …
Extradition Law and Practice
Introduction Extradition is the formal process by which one state surrenders a person located within its territory to another state for criminal prosecution or the enforcement of a criminal sentence. …
Fair Housing Law
Overview Fair Housing Law is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal framework …
Farm Policy and Agricultural Subsidies
Overview Farm Policy and Agricultural Subsidies is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
FCRA and Consumer Reporting
Overview FCRA and Consumer Reporting is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Feminist Legal Theory
Overview Feminist Legal Theory is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Food and Drug Regulation
Overview Food and Drug Regulation is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Food Safety Regulation
Overview Food Safety Regulation is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Franchise Law and Regulation
Overview Franchise Law and Regulation is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Fraud and Scam Protection
Overview Fraud and Scam Protection is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Free Access to Law Movement (LIIs Worldwide)
The global network of Legal Information Institutes providing free online access to legal materials across jurisdictions. The Free Access to Law Movement (FALM) is a global network of Legal Information …
Free Exercise of Religion
Overview Free Exercise of Religion is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Gender-Affirming Care and Medical Access
Overview Gender-Affirming Care and Medical Access is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this …
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
Summary The European Union’s comprehensive framework for personal data protection and privacy rights. Overview The General Data Protection Regulation (Regulation (EU) 2016/679) is the European …
Geneva Conventions
Introduction The Geneva Conventions are the core instruments of international humanitarian law (IHL), governing the conduct of armed conflict. The four conventions of 12 August 1949—now ratified by …
Geneva Conventions History
Definition The Geneva Conventions are a series of international treaties that establish the legal framework for humanitarian treatment during armed conflict. They form the core of international …
GMO and Biotechnology Regulation
Overview GMO and Biotechnology Regulation is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Google Dataset Search for Legal Data
A specialized search engine indexing thousands of legal datasets from repositories worldwide. Google Dataset Search indexes over 20 million datasets from repositories worldwide, including a …
GovTrack.us (Congressional Data)
Open data platform tracking US Congress bills, voting records, member profiles, and legislative analytics. GovTrack.us is an independent platform that makes US Congress data freely accessible. Founded …
Guardianship and Supported Decision-Making
Overview Guardianship and Supported Decision-Making is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this …
H.L.A. Hart
Introduction H.L.A. Hart (1907–1992) transformed Anglo-American jurisprudence with The Concept of Law (1961), widely regarded as the most important work of legal philosophy in the twentieth century. …
Habeas Corpus
Definition Habeas corpus (Latin: “you shall have the body”) is a legal writ requiring a person who has detained another to bring the detained person before a court to justify the …
Hans Kelsen
Introduction Hans Kelsen (1881–1973) was the most rigorous legal positivist of the twentieth century and the architect of the Pure Theory of Law (Reine Rechtslehre). He sought to establish …
Health Insurance Regulation
Overview Health Insurance Regulation is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Higher Education Regulation
Overview Higher Education Regulation is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
HIPAA and Health Data Privacy
Overview HIPAA and Health Data Privacy is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
HIPAA and Health Privacy
Overview HIPAA and Health Privacy is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Housing and Community Accessibility
Overview Housing and Community Accessibility is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
HUDOC (European Court of Human Rights)
The official database of the European Court of Human Rights, containing all judgments, decisions, and legal summaries. HUDOC is the official case law database of the European Court of Human Rights …
Human Rights
Definition Human rights are fundamental rights and freedoms inherent to every human being, regardless of nationality, residence, sex, ethnicity, religion, or any other status. They are inalienable …
Humanitarian Intervention and the Responsibility to Protect
Introduction The doctrine of humanitarian intervention—the use of force by one or more states to protect foreign nationals from mass atrocities—has been one of the most contested issues in …
In Rem
Definition In rem (Latin: “against a thing”) describes legal proceedings or jurisdictional authority directed against property rather than against a specific person (in personam). An in …
Indigenous Child Welfare
Overview Indigenous Child Welfare is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Indigenous Consultation and Consent
Overview Indigenous Consultation and Consent is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Indigenous Cultural Heritage
Overview Indigenous Cultural Heritage is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Indigenous Intellectual Property
Overview Indigenous Intellectual Property is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Indigenous Natural Resource Rights
Overview Indigenous Natural Resource Rights is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Informed Consent and Patient Rights
Overview Informed Consent and Patient Rights is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Insurance Agent and Broker Regulation
Overview Insurance Agent and Broker Regulation is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Insurance Contract Law
Summary The legal principles governing insurance contracts, including formation, interpretation, and good faith obligations. Overview Insurance law governs contracts of insurance, where the insurer …
Insurance Regulation
Summary The state and federal regulatory framework governing insurance companies, agents, and consumer protections. Overview Insurance regulation in the United States is primarily conducted at the …
Insurer Insolvency and Guaranty Funds
Overview Insurer Insolvency and Guaranty Funds is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Inter Alia
Definition Inter alia (Latin: “among other things”) is a legal term used to indicate that a list, illustration, or example is not exhaustive. It signals that the item mentioned is one of …
International Agricultural Trade
Overview International Agricultural Trade is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
International Commercial Arbitration
Overview International Commercial Arbitration is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
International Court of Justice
Introduction The International Court of Justice (ICJ), seated at the Peace Palace in The Hague, is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. Established by the UN Charter and the ICJ …
International Criminal Court
Introduction The International Criminal Court (ICC), established by the Rome Statute of 17 July 1998 (entering into force 1 July 2002), is the first permanent international tribunal with jurisdiction …
International Criminal Justice
Introduction International criminal justice seeks to hold individuals accountable for the most serious crimes under international law: genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and aggression. …
International Data Transfers
Overview International Data Transfers is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
International Environmental Law
Introduction International environmental law governs the protection of the global environment, addressing transboundary pollution, climate change, biodiversity loss, ozone depletion, hazardous waste, …
International Gender Justice
Overview International Gender Justice is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
International Law of the Sea
Introduction The international law of the sea governs the rights and duties of states in maritime spaces, the delimitation of maritime boundaries, the exploitation of marine resources, and the …
International Religious Freedom
Overview International Religious Freedom is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Intestate Succession
Overview Intestate Succession is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Introduction Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) developed the most radical and influential theory of popular sovereignty in the Enlightenment. His The Social Contract (Du Contrat Social, 1762) argues …
Jeremy Bentham
Introduction Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) was the founder of utilitarianism and a pivotal figure in the development of legal positivism. He subjected the common law to devastating critique, argued for …
John Austin
Introduction John Austin (1790–1859) was the first systematic exponent of analytical jurisprudence and the figure most closely associated with the command theory of law. His The Province of …
John Locke
Introduction John Locke (1632–1704) transformed legal and political philosophy through his theory of natural rights, limited government, and the right of revolution. His Two Treatises of Government …
Jurisdiction
Definition Jurisdiction—from Latin iurisdictio (the power to declare law)—is the official authority of a court, tribunal, or other legal body to hear and decide cases. It defines the boundaries within …
Jurisprudence
Definition Jurisprudence—from the Latin iurisprudentia (knowledge of law)—is the philosophical study of the nature, purposes, and foundations of law. It examines what law is, what it ought to be, and …
Juvenile Justice System
Overview Juvenile Justice System is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Karl Marx
Introduction Karl Marx (1818–1883) did not develop a systematic legal philosophy, but his critique of law as part of the ideological superstructure of capitalism has profoundly influenced legal …
Landlord-Tenant Law
Overview Landlord-Tenant Law is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal framework …
Legal Humanism
Definition Legal humanism (also known as the mos gallicus—the “French method”) was a Renaissance intellectual movement that applied humanist philology, history, and philosophy to the study …
Legal Positivism
Definition Legal positivism is the school of jurisprudential thought asserting that law is a set of rules created by human beings through social conventions and political authorities. Its central …
Legal Transplants: Theory and Practice
Introduction Legal transplantation — the movement of legal rules, institutions, and concepts from one legal system to another — is one of the most important processes in comparative law and legal …
Legislation.gov.uk (UK Legislation)
The official home of UK legislation, providing free access to all Acts, Statutory Instruments, and explanatory memoranda. Legislation.gov.uk is the official website for UK legislation, operated by The …
Letters of Credit
Overview Letters of Credit is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal framework …
LGBTQ+ Rights and the Law
Overview LGBTQ+ Rights and the Law is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Liability for Space Damage
Overview Liability for Space Damage is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Liability Insurance and Duty to Defend
Overview Liability Insurance and Duty to Defend is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Life Insurance Law
Overview Life Insurance Law is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal framework …
Lon Fuller
Introduction Lon L. Fuller (1902–1978) developed a distinctive procedural version of natural law theory in response to the legal positivism of H.L.A. Hart. In The Morality of Law (1964), Fuller argued …
Magna Carta
Definition Magna Carta (Latin: “Great Charter”) is a royal charter of rights agreed by King John of England at Runnymede on June 15, 1215, after rebellion by barons opposed to the …
Maori Law and the Treaty of Waitangi
Overview Maori Law and the Treaty of Waitangi is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Max Weber
Introduction Max Weber (1864–1920) founded the sociology of law as a systematic discipline. In Economy and Society (Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft), he analyzed law as a dimension of social action, …
Mediation Law and Ethics
Overview Mediation Law and Ethics is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Mediation: Process and Practice
Overview Mediation: Process and Practice is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Mens Rea
Definition Mens rea (Latin: “guilty mind”) is the mental element of a crime—the state of mind that the prosecution must prove the defendant had at the time of the prohibited conduct. It is …
Montesquieu
Introduction Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1689–1755), was the preeminent Enlightenment theorist of constitutional design. His magnum opus, The Spirit of the Laws (De l’Esprit …
Moon Agreement and Common Heritage
Overview Moon Agreement and Common Heritage is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Napoleonic Code
Definition The Napoleonic Code—officially the Code civil des Français (Civil Code of the French) and enacted in 1804—is the French civil code that became the foundation of modern civil law systems …
Napoleonic Code: History and Global Influence
Introduction The Napoleonic Code — officially the Code civil des Français (Civil Code of the French), enacted in 1804 — is the French civil code that became the foundation of modern civil law systems …
National Space Legislation
Overview National Space Legislation is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Native Title and Land Rights
Overview Native Title and Land Rights is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Natural Law Theory
Definition Natural law theory is the jurisprudential doctrine that law derives not from human enactment but from universal moral principles inherent in nature and discoverable through reason. An …
Negotiable Instruments and Payment Systems
Overview Negotiable Instruments and Payment Systems is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this …
Negotiation Theory and Practice
Overview Negotiation Theory and Practice is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Nemo Dat Quod Non Habet
Definition Nemo dat quod non habet (Latin: “no one can give what they do not have”) is a fundamental principle of property law providing that a person cannot transfer better title to …
Obiter Dictum
Definition Obiter dictum (Latin: “a thing said in passing”; plural: obiter dicta) is a remark, observation, or opinion expressed by a judge in a judicial decision that is not essential to …
Ombuds Procedures
Overview Ombuds Procedures is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal framework …
Online Dispute Resolution
Overview Online Dispute Resolution is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Open States (State Legislative Data)
A comprehensive platform aggregating legislative data from all 50 US states, territories, and DC. Open States is an open data project that collects, standardizes, and publishes legislative data from …
Organic Certification and Labeling
Overview Organic Certification and Labeling is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Outer Space Treaty Framework
Overview Outer Space Treaty Framework is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Oyez Project (Supreme Court Media)
The premier resource for US Supreme Court oral arguments, case summaries, and institutional information. The Oyez Project at Chicago-Kent College of Law is the definitive digital archive of US Supreme …
Parole and Probation
Summary Supervised release mechanisms that allow offenders to serve part of their sentence in the community under conditions. Overview Probation and parole are community-based supervision alternatives …
Per Curiam
Definition Per curiam (Latin: “by the court”) is an opinion delivered by an appellate court as a whole, rather than being attributed to a specific judge. Per curiam opinions are issued on …
Pesticide and Environmental Regulation
Overview Pesticide and Environmental Regulation is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Planetary Protection
Overview Planetary Protection is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Plato
Introduction Plato (c. 428–348 BCE) stands as the foundational figure in Western legal philosophy. His dialogues The Republic and The Laws established the central questions of jurisprudence: What is …
Precedent
Definition Precedent—derived from the Latin praecedere (to go before)—is the principle that courts should follow earlier judicial decisions when deciding subsequent cases involving similar facts and …
Presumption of Innocence
Summary The fundamental principle that an accused person is considered innocent until proven guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. Definition The presumption of innocence is a bedrock principle of …
Prima Facie
Definition Prima facie (Latin: “at first sight” or “on first appearance”) describes evidence that is sufficient to establish a fact or case unless rebutted. A prima facie case …
Prisoners' Constitutional Rights
Summary The constitutional protections retained by incarcerated individuals, including Eighth Amendment and Due Process claims. Overview Incarcerated individuals do not forfeit all constitutional …
Privacy and Data Security for Consumers
Overview Privacy and Data Security for Consumers is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Privacy Rights and Emerging Technologies
Overview Privacy Rights and Emerging Technologies is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this …
Private International Law
Definition Private international law, also known as conflict of laws, is the body of rules that determines which legal system applies and which court has jurisdiction when legal disputes involve …
Product Liability Law
Summary Manufacturer and seller liability for injuries caused by defective products, including strict liability theories. Overview Product liability law holds manufacturers, distributors, and sellers …
Property Insurance Coverage
Overview Property Insurance Coverage is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Property Law
Definition Property law governs the legal relationships between persons with respect to things. It defines the nature, acquisition, use, transfer, and protection of ownership and possessory interests …
Public Health Law
Overview Public Health Law is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal framework …
Public International Law
Definition Public international law is the system of legal rules, principles, and norms that governs relations between sovereign states and other international actors. It regulates state conduct …
Ratio Decidendi
Definition Ratio decidendi (Latin: “the reason for the decision”) is the principle or rule of law upon which a court’s decision is founded. It is the binding part of a judicial …
RECAP (PACER Document Archive)
A crowdsourced open archive of federal court documents from PACER, operated by the Free Law Project. RECAP is a platform that collects and freely distributes US federal court documents originally …
Redistricting and Gerrymandering
Overview Redistricting and Gerrymandering is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Registration of Space Objects
Overview Registration of Space Objects is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Reinsurance Law
Overview Reinsurance Law is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal framework …
Religion and Employment
Overview Religion and Employment is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Religion and Family Law
Overview Religion and Family Law is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Religion in Public Schools
Overview Religion in Public Schools is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Religious Accommodation in the Workplace
Overview Religious Accommodation in the Workplace is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this …
Religious Organization and Tax Exemption
Overview Religious Organization and Tax Exemption is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this …
Religious Symbols and Displays
Overview Religious Symbols and Displays is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Remedy
Definition A remedy is the means by which a court enforces a right, prevents or redresses a wrong, or compensates for injury. The maxim ubi ius, ibi remedium—where there is a right, there is a …
Remote Sensing and Earth Observation
Overview Remote Sensing and Earth Observation is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Reproductive Rights and Bodily Autonomy
Overview Reproductive Rights and Bodily Autonomy is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Reproductive Rights and Health Law
Overview Reproductive Rights and Health Law is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Res Judicata
Definition Res judicata (Latin: “a matter judged”) is the doctrine that a final judgment rendered by a competent court on the merits is conclusive between the parties and their privies, …
Rescue and Return of Astronauts
Overview Rescue and Return of Astronauts is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Restorative Justice
Overview Restorative Justice is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal framework …
Restorative Justice in Corrections
Summary An alternative approach focusing on repairing harm through dialogue, accountability, and community involvement. Overview Restorative justice emphasizes repairing the harm caused by criminal …
Right to Counsel
Summary The constitutional and statutory right to legal representation in criminal proceedings. Overview The right to counsel guarantees that criminal defendants have access to legal representation. …
Roman Law
Definition Roman law is the legal system of ancient Rome that evolved over more than one thousand years, from the Twelve Tables (c. 450 BCE) to the codification of Emperor Justinian (529–534 CE). It …
Ronald Dworkin
Introduction Ronald Dworkin (1931–2013) developed the most powerful critique of legal positivism and the most distinctive alternative theory of law: law as integrity. Taking aim at H.L.A. Hart’s …
Rule of Law
Definition The rule of law is the foundational principle that all persons, institutions, and entities—public and private, including the state itself—are accountable to laws that are publicly …
Sale of Business and Goodwill
Overview Sale of Business and Goodwill is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Sales of Goods (UCC Article 2)
Overview Sales of Goods (UCC Article 2) is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Satellite Communications Regulation
Overview Satellite Communications Regulation is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
School Choice and Vouchers
Overview School Choice and Vouchers is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
School Discipline and Due Process
Overview School Discipline and Due Process is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Secured Transactions Under Article 9
Summary The legal framework for security interests in personal property, governing lending and credit transactions. Overview Article 9 of the UCC governs secured transactions in personal property and …
Sentencing Law and Reform
Summary Legal principles governing criminal sentencing, including guidelines, mandatory minimums, and reform movements. Overview Sentencing is the judicial determination of punishment after …
Separation of Powers
Definition Separation of powers is the constitutional doctrine that divides governmental authority into three distinct branches: the legislative (lawmaking), the executive (law enforcement), and the …
Settlement Negotiations and Offers of Judgment
Overview Settlement Negotiations and Offers of Judgment is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this …
Sex Discrimination and Equal Protection
Overview Sex Discrimination and Equal Protection is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Sexual Harassment Law
Overview Sexual Harassment Law is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Socialist Law
Definition Socialist law is the legal system that emerged in states governed by communist parties following Marxist-Leninist ideology. It originated in the Soviet Union after the 1917 Russian …
Sovereignty
Definition Sovereignty is the supreme authority within a territory. It denotes the ultimate source of political and legal power—the capacity of a state or governing body to exercise final control over …
Soviet Legal System: History and Legacy
Introduction The Soviet legal system emerged after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 and developed over seven decades as a distinct legal tradition. Socialist law — the legal system of states governed …
Space Debris Mitigation
Overview Space Debris Mitigation is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Space Resource Extraction
Overview Space Resource Extraction is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Special Education and Section 504 Plans
Overview Special Education and Section 504 Plans is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Special Education Law (IDEA)
Overview Special Education Law (IDEA) is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Speedy Trial
Summary The right to prompt adjudication of criminal charges, preventing indefinite delay and prolonged pretrial detention. Overview The right to a speedy trial protects defendants from prolonged …
Sports and Gender Eligibility
Overview Sports and Gender Eligibility is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Standard of Review
Definition The standard of review defines the degree of deference an appellate court affords to a lower court’s decision. It establishes the lens through which the reviewing court examines the …
Standing
Definition Standing—also called locus standi—is the legal right of a person or entity to bring a case before a court. It serves as a gatekeeping doctrine that determines who is entitled to invoke the …
Stare Decisis
Definition Stare decisis—the abbreviation of stare decisis et non quieta movere (Latin: “stand by things decided and do not disturb settled matters”)—is the legal doctrine that courts …
State Sovereignty in International Law
Introduction State sovereignty is the foundational principle of international law. It denotes the legal personality and supreme authority of the state within its territory and its independence in …
Student Privacy and Records
Overview Student Privacy and Records is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Student Speech and Expression Rights
Overview Student Speech and Expression Rights is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Sub Judice
Definition Sub judice (Latin: “under judgment”) describes a matter that is currently under judicial consideration and not yet finally determined. The term identifies cases pending before a …
Teacher Employment Rights
Overview Teacher Employment Rights is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Telemarketing and Spam Regulation
Overview Telemarketing and Spam Regulation is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
The Origins of the Common Law
Introduction The common law is the legal system that originated in England after the Norman Conquest of 1066 and developed through judicial decisions rather than legislative codes. It is characterized …
The Use of Force in International Law
Introduction The regulation of the use of force in international law is one of the most fundamental and contested areas of the international legal order. The UN Charter, adopted in 1945, established a …
Thomas Aquinas
Introduction Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274) synthesized Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology to produce the most influential account of natural law in the Western tradition. His treatment of …
Thomas Hobbes
Introduction Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) revolutionized legal philosophy by grounding law in sovereign command rather than in nature or divine will. His masterpiece Leviathan (1651) provided a …
Title IX and Educational Equity
Overview Title IX and Educational Equity is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Title IX and Sex Discrimination
Overview Title IX and Sex Discrimination is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Tort
Definition A tort—from Latin tortus (twisted, wrong)—is a civil wrong giving rise to legal liability, distinct from breach of contract or violation of criminal law. Tort law provides remedies for …
Transgender Rights
Overview Transgender Rights is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal framework …
Transportation Accessibility
Overview Transportation Accessibility is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Treaty Rights and Interpretation
Overview Treaty Rights and Interpretation is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Tribal Courts and Justice Systems
Overview Tribal Courts and Justice Systems is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Tribal Sovereignty and Self-Governance
Overview Tribal Sovereignty and Self-Governance is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Trusts: Creation and Administration
Overview Trusts: Creation and Administration is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Types of Insurance Coverage
Summary The major categories of insurance coverage, including property, casualty, life, health, and liability insurance. Overview Insurance is classified by the type of risk covered. Property …
Ultra Vires
Definition Ultra vires (Latin: “beyond the powers”) describes an act performed without legal authority. Acts within one’s power are intra vires. The ultra vires doctrine applies in …
UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
Overview UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters …
UN Treaty Collection
The official repository of United Nations treaties and international agreements, with over 560,000 treaty records. The United Nations Treaty Collection (UNTC) is the official repository of treaties …
UNDRIP and Indigenous Rights
Overview UNDRIP and Indigenous Rights is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Unfair and Deceptive Acts and Practices
Overview Unfair and Deceptive Acts and Practices is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Uniform Commercial Code
Summary The comprehensive code governing commercial transactions, adopted in whole or part by all US states. Overview The Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) is a comprehensive set of laws governing …
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Definition The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a milestone international document adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948, in Paris. It proclaims, for the …
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties
Introduction The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), concluded on 23 May 1969 and entering into force on 27 January 1980, is the “treaty on treaties”—the primary instrument …
Violence Against Women
Overview Violence Against Women is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Volenti Non Fit Injuria
Definition Volenti non fit injuria (Latin: “to one who is willing, no harm is done”) is a common law defense providing that a person who voluntarily consents to a risk of injury cannot …
Voting Rights and Accessible Elections
Overview Voting Rights and Accessible Elections is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. …
Voting Rights in the United States
Summary The constitutional and statutory framework protecting the right to vote, from the Founders to the present. Overview Voting rights in the United States have expanded through a series of …
Warranties and Consumer Remedies
Summary Express and implied warranties in consumer transactions and available remedies for breach. Overview Warranties are promises about the quality or characteristics of goods sold to consumers. The …
Water Rights for Agriculture
Overview Water Rights for Agriculture is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The legal …
Wills and Testamentary Dispositions
Overview Wills and Testamentary Dispositions is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
Workplace Pregnancy Discrimination
Overview Workplace Pregnancy Discrimination is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …
World Trade Organization
Introduction The World Trade Organization (WTO), established on 1 January 1995 as the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), is the international organization regulating trade …
Zoning and Land Use for Religious Institutions
Overview Zoning and Land Use for Religious Institutions is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this …
Zoning and Land Use Regulation
Overview Zoning and Land Use Regulation is an important area of legal practice and scholarship that addresses how legal systems regulate, facilitate, or resolve matters related to this field. The …