Russian Legal Terms: A–D
This glossary defines Russian legal terms from A to D in English transliteration, providing contextual explanations for their use in the Russian legal system.
A
Administrativnoe Pravo (Административное право) — Administrative law. The body of law governing the organization and functioning of executive authorities and the legal relationship between citizens and the state administration. Administrative law is codified in the Code of Administrative Offences (Кодекс об административных правонарушениях) and governs liability for administrative violations distinct from criminal offenses.
Advokat (Адвокат) — Licensed defense attorney or advocate. A legal professional admitted to the bar who provides legal assistance, including criminal defense and court representation. Advokaty must be members of a regional bar chamber, are bound by attorney-client privilege, and are subject to professional ethics codes. The status of advokat is distinct from ordinary legal consultants (юристы) who are not members of the bar.
Apeallyatsionnaya Instantsiya (Апелляционная инстанция) — Appellate instance. The court level responsible for hearing appeals against decisions of first-instance courts that have not yet entered into legal force. The appellate instance conducts a de novo review of both factual and legal issues and may issue a new judgment rather than remanding the case.
Arbitrazh (Арбитраж) — Commercial arbitration or arbitrazh court system. In the Russian context, arbitrazh primarily refers to the state system of arbitrazh (commercial) courts that resolve economic disputes between businesses. The term also encompasses private commercial arbitration (третейский суд), but the state arbitrazh court system is the dominant institution for commercial dispute resolution.
Arbitrazhny Sud (Арбитражный суд) — Arbitrazh court or commercial court. A specialized court within the Russian judicial system handling economic disputes between legal entities and individual entrepreneurs, as well as disputes involving economic regulation. The system comprises first-instance arbitrazh courts, appellate arbitrazh courts, cassation arbitrazh courts, and the Judicial Chamber for Economic Disputes of the Supreme Court.
Arest (Арест) — Arrest or seizure. In criminal procedure, a preventive measure involving the short-term detention of a suspect or accused person, requiring judicial authorization. In civil and administrative law, arest refers to the seizure of property by court order to secure a claim or enforce a judgment.
B
Bankrotstvo (Банкротство) — Bankruptcy. The legal process for addressing the insolvency of legal entities and natural persons, governed by Federal Law No. 127-FZ on Insolvency (Bankruptcy). The bankruptcy procedure involves observation, financial rehabilitation, external administration, bankruptcy proceedings, and settlement agreements. Individual bankruptcy was introduced in 2015, allowing natural persons to discharge debts through court-supervised proceedings.
Bezopasnost (Безопасность) — Security. A broad legal concept encompassing national security, public security, and information security. The concept of bezopasnost is frequently invoked in Russian legislation as a basis for restricting rights, regulating activities, and justifying state action, particularly in national security, counter-terrorism, and data localization laws.
Byudzhet (Бюджет) — Budget. The annual federal law approving the state budget, establishing revenues and expenditures for the fiscal year. The budget system comprises the federal budget, regional budgets, municipal budgets, and state extra-budgetary funds. Budgetary legislation governs the classification of revenues and expenditures, inter-budgetary transfers, and budget execution control exercised by the Accounts Chamber.
C/K
Civil Code — see Grazhdansky Kodeks (Гражданский кодекс) — The primary codification of Russian private law, enacted in four parts between 1994 and 2008. Part One covers general provisions, property rights, and obligations; Part Two governs specific contractual obligations; Part Three addresses succession and private international law; Part Four regulates intellectual property rights. The Civil Code is the foundational statute for Russian civil law relationships.
Constitutional Court — see Konstitutsionny Sud (Конституционный суд) — The supreme judicial body for constitutional review, composed of 11 judges who review legislation for constitutionality and provide binding interpretations of the Constitution. The Constitutional Court reviews complaints from citizens alleging constitutional rights violations, examines the constitutionality of laws at the request of state bodies, and resolves disputes over competence between federal and regional authorities.
Constitutsiya — see Konstitutsiya (Конституция) — Constitution. The fundamental law of the Russian Federation, adopted by referendum on 12 December 1993. The Constitution establishes the foundations of the constitutional order, guarantees human and civil rights and freedoms, defines the federal structure, and establishes the system of state organs including the President, Federal Assembly, Government, and courts.
D
Denezhnoe Vzyskanie (Денежное взыскание) — Monetary recovery or pecuniary penalty. A financial sanction imposed by a court as a penalty for procedural violations or as a civil remedy. In administrative law, denezhnoe vzyskanie may refer to fines imposed for administrative offenses. The term is distinct from shtraf (fine) in criminal law.
Deputat (Депутат) — Deputy or parliamentary representative. An elected member of a legislative body, including the State Duma, regional legislative assemblies, or municipal councils. Deputaty exercise legislative powers, participate in committee work, and represent constituents. State Duma deputies are elected for five-year terms and enjoy parliamentary immunity during their mandate.
Detsky Dom (Детский дом) — Orphanage or children’s home. A state institution for the care of children deprived of parental care. Detsky dom is a form of institutional care governed by family law and social welfare legislation, though Russian law prioritizes family-based placement through adoption, guardianship, and foster care over institutional placement.
Dobytochnoe Pravo (Добыточное право) — Extractive law or resource extraction rights. The body of legal rules governing the exploration, extraction, and use of natural resources, particularly minerals and hydrocarbons. Extractive rights are granted through licensing agreements and production-sharing agreements and are regulated by the Law on Subsoil Resources.
Dohod (Доход) — Income or revenue. Any receipt of money or property that increases the economic benefit of a person or entity. The concept of dohod is central to tax law, where it defines the tax base for personal income tax (13% flat rate) and corporate profit tax (20%). Income may be derived from employment, business activities, property, investments, or other sources.
Dolzhnostnoe Litso (Должностное лицо) — Official or public officer. A person exercising organizational-administrative or administrative-economic functions in state bodies, local government, or public institutions. Dolzhnostnye litsa may be held to higher standards of legal liability, including criminal liability for abuse of office, bribery, and malfeasance.
Dopusk (Допуск) — Clearance or access authorization. The formal procedure for granting access to state secrets or classified information. Dopusk to state secrets is regulated by the Law on State Secrets and involves background checks, security vetting, and different levels of clearance corresponding to the degree of secrecy of information.
Dovarennost (Доверенность) — Power of attorney. A written authorization by which one person (the principal) authorizes another (the agent or representative) to act on their behalf in legal relationships. Dovarennost is governed by the Civil Code and may be general (covering all affairs), special (covering specific categories of transactions), or one-time (for a single transaction).
Dokazatelstvo (Доказательство) — Evidence. Information on the basis of which the court establishes the presence or absence of circumstances relevant to the case. Evidence includes written documents, physical evidence, expert opinions, witness testimony, audiovisual recordings, and electronic evidence. The rules of admissibility, relevance, and evaluation of evidence are governed by the procedural codes.