The Institutional Framework of the European Union
The institutional framework of the European Union, established under Articles 13 to 19 TEU, comprises seven principal institutions together with advisory and financial bodies that collectively exercise the legislative, executive, judicial, and budgetary functions of the Union. The framework balances supranational and intergovernmental elements, ensuring that the interests of the Union, the Member States, and the citizens of Europe are each represented in decision-making. The architecture has evolved significantly through successive treaty reforms, with the European Parliament transformed from a consultative assembly to a co-legislator, the European Council formalised as an institution, and national parliaments strengthened through subsidiarity scrutiny mechanisms.
The European Council
The European Council, composed of the Heads of State or Government of the Member States, its President, and the President of the Commission, defines the general political directions and priorities of the Union under Article 15 TEU. It exercises no legislative functions but provides strategic guidance, resolves political blockages, and addresses sensitive issues that cannot be resolved at the Council of Ministers level. The European Council meets at least twice every six months and decides by consensus. Its President, elected by qualified majority for a term of two and a half years renewable once, chairs meetings and ensures continuity. The position was created by the Treaty of Lisbon to replace the previous system of rotating presidencies at the level of Heads of State or Government.
The Council of the European Union
The Council of the European Union, commonly called the Council of Ministers, represents the Member States at ministerial level and exercises legislative and budgetary functions jointly with the European Parliament under Article 16 TEU. The Council meets in ten configurations depending on subject matter, including the General Affairs Council, ECOFIN, and the Justice and Home Affairs Council. The presidency rotates among Member States every six months, except for the Foreign Affairs configuration chaired by the High Representative.
The Council votes by qualified majority voting (QMV) as the default procedure, with unanimity required only where the Treaties specifically provide. A qualified majority requires at least 55 per cent of Member States representing at least 65 per cent of the Union’s population, with a blocking minority requiring at least four Member States. The Council acts on proposals from the Commission, which it may amend only by unanimity where the Commission does not accept the amendment, preserving the Commission’s role as initiator of legislation.
The European Parliament
The European Parliament is the directly elected institution of the Union under Article 14 TEU, representing the citizens of Europe. Members are elected every five years by direct universal suffrage, with seats allocated degressively proportionally — a minimum of six and a maximum of ninety-six per Member State, not exceeding seven hundred and fifty plus the President. The Parliament exercises legislative and budgetary functions jointly with the Council and performs functions of political control.
The evolution of the Parliament from an advisory assembly to a co-legislator is a defining feature of EU institutional development. Originally appointed by national parliaments with purely consultative powers, the Parliament acquired budgetary powers through the Treaty of Luxembourg (1970) and the Treaty of Brussels (1975). Direct elections were introduced in 1979. The co-decision procedure introduced by Maastricht and expanded by Amsterdam and Lisbon — now the ordinary legislative procedure under Article 294 TFEU — places the Parliament on an equal footing with the Council in most areas of law-making. The Parliament also elects the President of the Commission on a proposal from the European Council and approves the Commission as a college.
The European Commission
The European Commission is the executive institution of the Union under Article 17 TEU, holding the monopoly of legislative initiative in most policy areas. It proposes the Union’s annual budget, ensures the application of the Treaties and secondary legislation, represents the Union in international trade negotiations, and acts as the guardian of the Treaties by monitoring Member State compliance and initiating infringement proceedings under Articles 258–260 TFEU.
The Commission is composed of one Commissioner from each Member State, including the President and the High Representative. The President is proposed by the European Council and elected by the European Parliament. The Commission operates under the principle of collegiality: decisions are taken collectively, and all Commissioners bear collective responsibility. The Commission is accountable to the European Parliament, which may adopt a motion of censure forcing the resignation of the entire Commission.
The Court of Justice of the European Union
The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) comprises the Court of Justice, the General Court, and specialised courts. The Court of Justice has jurisdiction over actions for annulment under Article 263 TFEU, actions for failure to act under Article 265 TFEU, infringement proceedings against Member States, and references for preliminary rulings under Article 267 TFEU. The preliminary ruling procedure is the keystone of the EU judicial system, ensuring uniform interpretation of EU law across Member States. The General Court has jurisdiction over direct actions by natural or legal persons, competition law cases, and appeals from specialised tribunals, with appeals lying to the Court of Justice on points of law only.
The European Central Bank
The European Central Bank (ECB), together with the national central banks of euro-area Member States, constitutes the Eurosystem conducting the Union’s monetary policy. Established under Articles 282–284 TFEU, the ECB enjoys institutional independence, being prohibited from seeking or taking instructions from Union institutions or Member State governments. Its primary objective is to maintain price stability, reflecting the ordoliberal tradition that influenced the design of Economic and Monetary Union.
The Court of Auditors
The Court of Auditors, established under Articles 285–287 TFEU, audits Union accounts and examines whether revenue has been received and expenditure incurred lawfully and regularly and whether financial management has been sound. It consists of one member from each Member State appointed by the Council for a renewable six-year term and assists the Parliament and the Council in budgetary control.
Advisory Bodies
The European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) and the European Committee of the Regions are advisory bodies under Articles 300–307 TFEU. The EESC, composed of representatives of organised civil society, must be consulted on legislative proposals in specified policy areas. The Committee of the Regions, composed of representatives of regional and local government, must be consulted on proposals affecting regional and local matters including cohesion policy, transport, energy, and the environment.